In the late 1990s, the exotic plant Spartina alterniflora (S. alterniflora), was introduced to the Zhangjiang Estuary of China for tidal zone reclamation and protection. However, it invaded rapidly and has caused serious ecological problems. Accurate information on the seasonal invasion of S. alterniflora is vital to understand invasion pattern and mechanism, especially at a high temporal resolution. This study aimed to explore the S. alterniflora invasion process at a seasonal scale from 2016 to 2018. However, due to the uncertainties caused by periodic inundation of local tides, accurately monitoring the spatial extent of S. alterniflora is challenging. Thus, to achieve the goal and address the challenge, we firstly built a high-quality seasonal Sentinel-2 image collection by developing a new submerged S. alterniflora index (SAI) to reduce the errors caused by high tide fluctuations. Then, an object-based random forest (RF) classification method was applied to the image collection. Finally, seasonal extents of S. alterniflora were captured. Results showed that (1) the red edge bands (bands 5, 6, and 7) of Sentinel-2 imagery played critical roles in delineating submerged S. alterniflora; (2) during March 2016 to November 2018, the extent of S. alterniflora increased from 151.7 to 270.3 ha, with an annual invasion rate of 39.5 ha; (3) S. alterniflora invaded with a rate of 31.5 ha/season during growing season and 12.1 ha/season during dormant season. To our knowledge, this is the first study monitoring S. alterniflora invasion process at a seasonal scale during continuous years, discovering that S. alterniflora also expands during dormant seasons. This discovery is of great significance for understanding the invasion pattern and mechanism of S. alterniflora and will facilitate coastal biodiversity conservation efforts.

In the late 1990s, the exotic plant Spartina alterniflora (S. alterniflora), was introduced to the Zhangjiang Estuary of China for tidal zone reclamation and protection. However, it invaded rapidly and has caused serious ecological problems. Accurate information on the seasonal invasion of S. alterniflora is vital to understand invasion pattern and mechanism, especially at a high temporal resolution. This study aimed to explore the S. alterniflora invasion process at a seasonal scale from 2016 to 2018. However, due to the uncertainties caused by periodic inundation of local tides, accurately monitoring the spatial extent of S. alterniflora is challenging. Thus, to achieve the goal and address the challenge, we firstly built a high-quality seasonal Sentinel-2 image collection by developing a new submerged S. alterniflora index (SAI) to reduce the errors caused by high tide fluctuations. Then, an object-based random forest (RF) classification method was applied to the image collection. Finally, seasonal extents of S. alterniflora were captured. Results showed that (1) the red edge bands (bands 5, 6, and 7) of Sentinel-2 imagery played critical roles in delineating submerged S. alterniflora; (2) during March 2016 to November 2018, the extent of S. alterniflora increased from 151.7 to 270.3 ha, with an annual invasion rate of 39.5 ha; (3) S. alterniflora invaded with a rate of 31.5 ha/season during growing season and 12.1 ha/season during dormant season. To our knowledge, this is the first study monitoring S. alterniflora invasion process at a seasonal scale during continuous years, discovering that S. alterniflora also expands during dormant seasons. This discovery is of great significance for understanding the invasion pattern and mechanism of S. alterniflora and will facilitate coastal biodiversity conservation efforts.